History

Teaching began on Kapitulská street on November 5, 1627. The superior was Gašpar Mallius, professors Štefan Gosztonyi, Krištof Pirpach and František Fuggneshuh. There were 46 students (only boys) at the beginning, but within a month their number had grown to over 100.

During its almost four centuries, Gamča went through various changes (school policy and ideology, founder, building, language of instruction, focus), during which it still belonged and belongs to the pillars of education, at least in Bratislava.

We are processing a more detailed history between 1626 and today, free from various ideological deposits. In the meantime, you can view our past names, directors, notable alumni and historical charters via the submenu above.

Peter Pázmaň – September 11, 1626

• Original text in Latin
  Nos Petrus Pazmany miseratione divina Archi-episcopus Ecclesiae Metropolitanae Strigoniensis, legatus natus, primas Hungariae, summus secretarius et cancellarius, ac Sacratissimi principis et domini domini Ferdinandi II. Dei gratia electi Romanorum imperatoris semper Augusti, ac Germaniae, Hungariae, Bohemiae etc. intimus consiliarius. Damus pro memoria: Quod cum pro pastorali nostra obligatione de res arciendis catholicae religionis in Ungaria ruinis assidue coram Deo cogitaremus, nullum nec praesentius, nec magis necessarium occurrit tantis malis remedium, quam si studiosa iuventus in aetate teneriore, suavi ductu, ad fidem ac pietatem una cum literis imbibendam, per pios ac sedulos operarios informaretur. Et quoniam, peculiari quodam Divinae largitatis munere, Sancta Societas Iesu ad erudiendam iuventutem, sancto et salutari zelo felicissime incumbit, tenerasque et adhuc flecti faciles, nec in malo obrigescentes plantulas, coelesti olim Paradiso feliciter inserendas, indefesso studio excolit, summopere semper necessarium iudicavimus, ut domicilium ipsis in hac Regia civitate Posoniensi honestaque sustentatio assignaretur. Quamobrem, posteaquam Capitulum venerabile, Posonyi constitutum, ac ipsa quoque civitas Posoniensis, in tanta huius loci angustia, situm haud incommodum, ad diligentem Suae Maiestatis Caesaris ac Regis nostramque instantiam, collegio concesserunt, certis conditionibus, in originalibus literis declaratis, nos quoque, inducti Dei amore, ac religionis catholicae promovendae studio, peculiarique affectu, quo praedictam Societatem, sicut animam nostram, amplectimur, eisdem Patribus Societatis IESU, pro erigendo et in perpetuum conservando Collegio Posoniensi, quinquaginta milla florenorum Rhenensium ex propriis mensae nostrae proventibus Viennae in loco securo, ac patribus praedictis idoneo, depositos defacto damus, donamus, et in perpetuum conferimus. Nullum ius, nullamque proprietatem eorum nobis, vel successoribus reservendo: Litteras etiam originales omnes, ad praedictae summae censum et capitale spectanteses, eisdem patribus, una cum hisce literis fundationis per manus tradimus. Illud unum per expressum caventes, quod, si successivis temporibus, ex occulto aliquo irascentis Dei iudicio, patres Societatis Iesu collegium hic PosonyI continuare non posset, illo casu tantisper donec Societatis iterum Posonium redire possit, summam illam capitalem, cuiusque censum, vel bona stabilia si quae forte illa peccunia emerentur, teneantur in usum Ungarorum, extra Ungariam studentium, ac ad Statum ecclesisticum adspirantium, bona fide convertere. Deum Optimum Maximum humillo instantique affectu oramus, odoretur hoc Sacrificium bonae voluntatis nostrae, ut ea, quae de manu ipsius accepimus, ad nominis sui obsequium convertantur, eumque ex hac tenella fundatione, in utilitatem ecclesiae catholicae, fructum redundare velit, quem tanta necessitas afflictae Patriae exigit, et ego ex animo voveo. Datum Posonii in Curia nostra Archiepiscopali, die undecima Mensis Septembris anno Domini millessimo sescentessimo vigesimo sexto.
  Petrus Pazmany
  Archi-episcopus Striginiensis, m.p.
   
• Free translation into English
  We, Peter Pázmaň, by God’s mercy, archbishop of the Ostrihom Metropolitan Church, legate for life, primate of the Kingdom of Hungary, chief secretary and chancellor, as well as a private adviser to the lord, lord Ferdinand II., by God’s grace chosen emperor, always the benefactor of the empire, German, Hungarian and the king of Bohemia, etc., we record as a memorial: Because, due to our pastoral obligation before God, we were constantly thinking about restoring the ruins of the Catholic religion in the Kingdom of Hungary, in such a bad situation, no other more effective or suitable means was offered to us, than that the studying youth already in at a tender age, under the sensitive guidance of pious and zealous workers, she inculcated faith and piety along with education. Because, thanks to a certain extraordinary gift of Divine generosity, and because of a sacred and human desire, the task of educating the youth of the Society of Jesus, which, with untiring efforts, refines the delicate, still pliable shoots, which have not yet matured even in misfortune, once happily grafted in the heavenly paradise, has fallen, we have always considered for the most necessary that we assign them a seat in this royal city of Bratislava with dignified support. And therefore, after the venerable chapter was established in Bratislava and also the city of Bratislava itself, at the careful insistence of his Imperial-Royal Majesty and ours, despite the great need of this city, assigned a very suitable place for the college, under certain conditions precisely stipulated in the original document, we also, impelled by the love of God, by the endeavour to improve the Catholic religion, and by the extraordinary love which our hearts feel towards the said Society, to these fathers of the Society of Jesus, in a safe place suitable for the said fathers, we point out, bestow and bequeath for ever fifty thousand Rhenish guilders from our pension in Vienna to build and maintain the Bratislava college forever, without preserving any ownership rights towards us or our successors. At the same time, together with this founding deed, we hand over the originals of all documents relating to the above-mentioned amount of capital and interest to the father. However, let them strictly avoid the one thing, that if, due to some secret decision of an angry God, the fathers of the Society of Jesus could not maintain the college here in Bratislava in the following years, and then if the Society could return to Bratislava again, let this capital be used in good faith and its income or fixed assets, which would hopefully be purchased from this sum, only for the maintenance of Hungarians studying outside the Kingdom of Hungary and preparing for the ecclesiastical career. We most humbly and earnestly beseech the Greatest and Best God to deign to approve this sacrifice of our goodwill. Let what we have received from his hands be turned to the praise of his name, and let it please us to increase the revenue from this small foundation for the benefit of the Catholic Church, which the beleaguered motherland inevitably demanded. I sincerely wish it. In Bratislava, in the seat of our archbishop’s curia, on September 11, in the year of the Lord, 1626.
  Peter Pázmaň, Archbishop of Ostrihom
   

Ferdinand II – July 16, 1628

• Original text in Latin
  Nos Ferdinandus secundu dei gratia electus Romanorum imperator semper augustus ac Germaniae, Hungarie, Bohemiae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, Sclavoniae etc. rec, archidux Austriae, dux Burgundiae, Styriae, Carinthiae, Carniolae, marchio Moraviae, dux Luxemburgae ac superioris et inferioris Silesiae, comes Habspurgi, Tyrolis et Goritiae etc. memoriae commendamus tenore praesentium significantes quibus expedit universis, quod considerantibus nobis, quibus potissimum adminiculis fides et religio Christiana a tot retro annorum seculis ad haec usque tempora inter genus humanum non solum propagata sed et conservata extiterit, verum etiam per universi orbis Christiani regna tam altas radices figendo in tantum et tam late patentem sui splendorem atque potentiam excreverit, inter alia divinae providentiae subsidia animadvertimus principes pios ipsiusque religionis Christianae studiosos et amantes praecipue autem eos, penes quos nonnunquam summam (igy) quoque rerum orbis potestas stare solebat, in ea cum impensius dilatata et ornata tum vero defensa et ad nostram usque transmissa plurimum semper momenti attulisse. Nam si sacras veterum historias evolvimus, pietatem in deum quae ex sola verae fidei cognitione provenit bonorum semper et piorum princpum tempore floruisse, regnorum vero gubernaculis ad impios delatis innumeris persecutionibus saepissime fuisse obnoxiam comperimus, et quam tandem continua quadam Christianorum et piorum principum successione factum sit, ut eas sibi vires ad potentiam pararit, quibus ut cernere licet universum pene orbem suis subditis legibus inter alia plurima orbis Christiani regna Hungaria quoque, deo optimo maximo gentis illius quoque saluti misericorditer prospicere volente, suavissimo ipsius fidei Christianae jugo collum praebuit. Quo facto cum a divis quondam Hungariae regibus nostris praedecessoribus, piae memoriae non minorem in augmentanda et ornanda quam conservanda religione ipsa factum esse videamus diligentia (igy), conum vestigiis nos quoque insistere volentes, quum videamus plurimis haeresibus infecto perditissimoque hoc saeculo honesta liberalium artinum studia ad extirpandas haereses ipsas vel impii illius caesaris Apostatae Christianorum liberos a frequentandis liberalium artium scholis publico edicto prohibentis testimonio plurimum conducete, ut ea in regno quoque nostro Hungariae florere uberesque cum pietatis tum etiam cultiorum morum fructus passim edere possit. Hinc est quod ex clementi annuentia et voluntate nostra ad gloriam imprimis dei omnipotentis, deinde vero catholicae quoque fidei profectum, regni nostri Hungariae commodum, collegium Societatis Jesu, quae nostris temporibus in crudienda iuventute cum circa religionem veram et catholicam tum etiam honesta literarum studia summam facere dignoscitur diligentiam, in civitate nostra libera Posoniensi comitatuque eiusdem existente erigendum et fundandum esse duximus. Pro cujus quidem collegii erectione et perpetua conservatione fidelis noster nobis syncere dilectus reverendissimus in Christo pater dominus Petrus Pazmany archiepiscopus ecclesiae metropolitanae Strigonienisis locique ciusdem comes perpetuus, primas Hungariae, legatus natus, summus et secretarius, cancellarius et consiliarius noster certam fundationem juxta formam et modum hisce literis nostris insertam fecisse dignoscitur, tenoris infrascripti: Nos Petrus Pazmany miseratione divina Archi-episcopus Ecclesiae Metropolitanae Strigoniensis, legatus natus, primas Hungariae, summus secretarius et cancellarius, ac Sacratissimi principis et domini domini Ferdinandi II. Dei gratia electi Romanorum imperatoris semper Augusti, ac Germaniae, Hungariae, Bohemiae etc. intimus consiliarius. Damus pro memoria: Quod cum pro pastorali nostra obligatione de res arciendis catholicae religionis in Ungaria ruinis assidue coram Deo cogitaremus, nullum nec praesentius, nec magis necessarium occurrit tantis malis remedium, quam si studiosa iuventus in aetate teneriore, suavi ductu, ad fidem ac pietatem una cum literis imbibendam, per pios ac sedulos operarios informaretur. Et quoniam, peculiari quodam Divinae largitatis munere, Sancta Societas Iesu ad erudiendam iuventutem, sancto et salutari zelo felicissime incumbit, tenerasque et adhuc flecti faciles, nec in malo obrigescentes plantulas, coelesti olim Paradiso feliciter inserendas, indefesso studio excolit, summopere semper necessarium iudicavimus, ut domicilium ipsis in hac Regia civitate Posoniensi honestaque sustentatio assignaretur. Quamobrem, posteaquam Capitulum venerabile, Posonyi constitutum, ac ipsa quoque civitas Posoniensis, in tanta huius loci angustia, situm haud incommodum, ad diligentem Suae Maiestatis Caesaris ac Regis nostramque instantiam, collegio concesserunt, certis conditionibus, in originalibus literis declaratis, nos quoque, inducti Dei amore, ac religionis catholicae promovendae studio, peculiarique affectu, quo praedictam Societatem, sicut animam nostram, amplectimur, eisdem Patribus Societatis IESU, pro erigendo et in perpetuum conservando Collegio Posoniensi, quinquaginta milla florenorum Rhenensium ex propriis mensae nostrae proventibus Viennae in loco securo, ac patribus praedictis idoneo, depositos defacto damus, donamus, et in perpetuum conferimus. Nullum ius, nullamque proprietatem eorum nobis, vel successoribus reservendo: Litteras etiam originales omnes, ad praedictae summae censum et capitale spectanteses, eisdem patribus, una cum hisce literis fundationis per manus tradimus. Illud unum per expressum caventes, quod, si successivis temporibus, ex occulto aliquo irascentis Dei iudicio, patres Societatis Iesu collegium hic PosonyI continuare non posset, illo casu tantisper donec Societatis iterum Posonium redire possit, summam illam capitalem, cuiusque censum, vel bona stabilia si quae forte illa peccunia emerentur, teneantur in usum Ungarorum, extra Ungariam studentium, ac ad Statum ecclesisticum adspirantium, bona fide convertere. Deum Optimum Maximum humillo instantique affectu oramus, odoretur hoc Sacrificium bonae voluntatis nostrae, ut ea, quae de manu ipsius accepimus, ad nominis sui obsequium convertantur, eumque ex hac tenella fundatione, in utilitatem ecclesiae catholicae, fructum redundare velit, quem tanta necessitas afflictae Patriae exigit, et ego ex animo voveo. Datum Posonii in Curia nostra Archiepiscopali, die undecima Mensis Septembris anno Domini millessimo sescentessimo vigesimo sexto. Nos itaque pro singulari nostra in Deum pietate zeloque et affectu erga incrementum religionis catholicae salvificae in isto quoque regno nostro Hungariae, eiusimodi fundationem acceptamus, ratam habemus ac in perpetuum duraturam confirmamus et diplomate hocce roboramus, ac ut tam tempore felicis nostrae gubernationis et regiminis dieti regni nostri Hungariae, quam etiam successorum nostrorum legitimorum scilicet regum Hungariae ab omnibus et singulis quorum interest ratum, firmum et validum ut habeatur, benigne aeque ac firmiter habere volumus statuimusque et decernimus. In quorum robur et firmamentum hasce literas nostra secreto sigillo nostro quo ut rex Hungariae utimur impendenti communitas dandas duximus et concedendas. Datum per manus fidelis nostri nobis dilecti reverendi Stephani Senniey de Kis Sennie, episcopi Vaciensis consiliarii nostri et aulae nostrae per Hungariam cancellarii, in civitate nostra Vienna Austriae, die decima sexta mentis Julii, anno domini millesimo sexcentesimo vigesimo octavo.
   
• Free translation into English
  We, Ferdinand II., chosen by God’s grace, Roman Emperor, always the improver of the empire, as well as King of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Carinthia, Carniola, Margrave of Moravia, Duke of Luxembourg, as well as Upper and Lower Silesia, Counts of Habsburg, Tirol, Gorič, etc. As a memorial, we record and make known the wording of this document to all those concerned. When we were thinking about how to support the faith and the Christian religion as much as possible, which has not only spread among the human race for so many years and centuries until today, but also preserved it, and also in the kingdoms of the whole Christian world by planting such deep roots very widely extended its lustre and strengthened its power, among other supports of Divine Providence, we find that pious and loving rulers who cared for the Christian religion, but especially those for whose sake the supreme power over worldly affairs always remained, most often incited both the Christian religion to be intensified spread and worshipped, on the one hand, so that the protected survived until our age. For if we have studied the sacred history of the ancestors, we have learned that piety towards God, which comes only from the knowledge of the real truth, always flourished in the times of good and pious rulers, but when the government came to ungodly kings, piety very often suffered because of numerous persecutions pity. Finally, by a certain continuous succession of Christian and godly rulers, it happened that Christianity acquired the strength and power with which, as can be seen, it subjugated almost the whole world through its laws. Among other numerous Christian kingdoms of the whole world, the Kingdom of Hungary also wanted to mercifully take care of the Best Greatest God and also the welfare of the nation itself, and thus provided a neck to the most delicate yoke of the Christian faith itself. And so, because we see that once upon a time the holy Hungarian kings, our predecessors of blessed memory, took care to expand and embellish religion itself no less than to preserve it, also wanting to follow in their footsteps, as we see in this century, which is infected with many heresies and the pernicious, honourable efforts of the sciences to root out the very heresies, or that evidence have been collected that by the public decree of that impious emperor, the apostate, Christian children are forbidden to attend schools and that this might also flourish in our Hungarian kingdom and destroy everywhere at once the wealth of piety, on the one hand, the benefit of cultivated morals. And therefore, with kind consent and as an expression of our will, for the glory above all of Almighty God and also for the benefit of the Catholic faith and the benefit of our Kingdom of Hungary, we have decided that the College of the Society of Jesus, which in our times prides itself with great consistency on the education of youth both in the right the Catholic religion, on the one hand, in the honourable study of sciences, must be established and established in our free city of Bratislava in the capital of Bratislava. For the establishment of this college and its eternal preservation, our faithful and dear to us most venerable father in Christ, Mr. Pázmaň, archbishop of the Metropolitan Church of Ostrihom, etc. a solid foundation, which we have confirmed by the content and form of this document of ours as stated below: We, Peter Pázmaň, by God’s mercy, Archbishop of the Ostrichom Metropolitan Church, Legate for life, Primate of the Kingdom of Hungary, Chief Secretary and Chancellor, as well as Privy Councilor to Mr. Ferdinand II., by the grace of God of the chosen emperor, always the benefactor of the empire, the king of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia, etc., we record as a memory: Because, due to our pastoral obligation before God, we were constantly thinking about restoring the ruins of the Catholic religion in the Kingdom of Hungary, he did not offer us in in such a bad situation, there is no other more effective or suitable means than for the studying youth to inculcate faith and piety together with education at an early age under the sensitive guidance of pious and zealous workers. Because, thanks to a certain extraordinary gift of Divine generosity, and because of a sacred and human desire, the task of educating the youth of the Society of Jesus, which, with untiring efforts, refines the delicate, still pliable shoots, which have not yet matured even in misfortune, once happily grafted in the heavenly paradise, has fallen, we have always considered for the most necessary that we assign them a seat in this royal city of Bratislava with dignified support. And therefore, after the venerable chapter was established in Bratislava and also the city of Bratislava itself, at the careful insistence of his Imperial-Royal Majesty and ours, despite the great need of this city, assigned a very suitable place for the college, under certain conditions precisely stipulated in the original document, we also, impelled by the love of God, by the endeavour to improve the Catholic religion, and by the extraordinary love which our hearts feel towards the said Society, to these fathers of the Society of Jesus, in a safe place suitable for the said fathers, we point out, bestow and bequeath for ever fifty thousand Rhenish guilders from our pension in Vienna to build and maintain the Bratislava college forever, without preserving any ownership rights towards us or our successors. At the same time, together with this founding deed, we hand over the originals of all documents relating to the above-mentioned amount of capital and interest to the father. However, let them strictly avoid the one thing, that if, due to some secret decision of an angry God, the fathers of the Society of Jesus could not maintain the college here in Bratislava in the following years, and then if the Society could return to Bratislava again, let this capital be used in good faith and its income or fixed assets, which would hopefully be purchased from this sum, only for the maintenance of Hungarians studying outside the Kingdom of Hungary and preparing for the ecclesiastical career. We most humbly and earnestly beseech the Greatest and Best God to deign to approve this sacrifice of our goodwill. Let what we have received from his hands be turned to the praise of his name, and let it please us to increase the revenue from this small foundation for the benefit of the Catholic Church, which the beleaguered motherland inevitably demanded. I sincerely wish it. In Bratislava, in the seat of our archbishop’s curia, on the 11th of September in the year of the Lord 1626. And therefore we, for our exceptional piety towards God and for the zealous effort for the growth of the healing Catholic religion in this Hungarian kingdom of ours, accept this foundation, consider it approved, we also confirm its eternal validity and consolidate it with this document. We kindly and firmly resolve to establish and decide that during our happy administration and government in our mentioned Hungarian Kingdom, as well as our successors, equally lawful Hungarian kings, it shall be considered firm and valid by all individuals concerned. As a sign of strength and firmness, we ordered this document of ours to be drawn up and to be confirmed with our secret seal, which we use as the Hungarian king. Given by the hand of our faithful venerable Štefan Sennye de Kys Sennye, bishop of Vaca, our counsellor and chancellor of our court for Hungary, in our seat city of Vienna in Austria, on the 16th day of July in the year of the Lord 1628.

Mutio Vitelleschi – June 12, 1631

• Original text in Latin
  Mutius Vitellescus
  Societatis Iesu praepositus generalis
  Omnibus, in quorum manus hae litterae venerint, salutem in Domino sempiternam
  Cum eminentissimus et reverendissimus dominus S.R.E cardinalis et archiepiscopus Strigoniensis, divini honoris zelo, ac religionis catholicae proveniendo studio ductus pro fundatione et dote Collegii Societatis nostrae in civitate Posoniensi erigendi quinquaginta millia florenorum Rhenensium capitalis Viennensis in loco securo et idoneo depositorum donaverit et in perpetuum assignaverit, prout in literis patentibus manu ipsius subscriptis, et die XI. Mensis Septembris MDCXXVI. Posonii datis latius continetur. Nos eodem studio ducti supradicti eminentissimi et reverendissimi domini cardinalis et archiepiscopi pietati, propensaque erga nostram Societatem voluntati, quoad in nobis est, respondere, ipsique obsequi exoptantes, dictam donationem cum nostro, tum nostrorum successorum nomine omni meliore modo, quo possumus cum debita gratiarum actione acceptamus; et dictum collegium iuxta eiusdem Societatis institutum, constitutiones, et morem gubernandum et regendum in dicta civitate Posoniensi erigimus et instituimus dictis quinquaginta milia florenum pro illius fundatione et dote applicamus et appropriamus; dictumque eminentissimum reverendissimum dominum cardinalem et archiepiscopum Petrum in fundatorem dicti collegii cum omnibus suffragiis, praerogativis et debitis fundatoribus collegiorum ex nostris constitutionibus dari recipimus et admittimus; Deumque enixe precamur, ut his acceptis feliciter adspiret, et de inexhausto eiusdem dilectissimi filii sui meritorum thesauro nostrum ipse inopiam implens supradictum eminentissimum et reverendissimum dominum cardinalem et archiepiscopum Petrum aeternae gloriae corona remuneret. In quorum fidem praesentes manu nostra subsequens, sigillo Societatis nostrae munitas dedimus. Romae Die XII Iunii MDCXXXI.
  Mutius Vitellescus
   
• Free translation into English
  Mutius Vitellescus
  Superior General of the Society of Jesus
  I send eternal greetings in the Lord to all into whose hands this document will fall in the future
  Since the noble and venerable Mr. Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church and Archbishop of Ostrihom, out of respect for God and guided by the effort to spread the Catholic religion, donated fifty thousand Rhenish florins from the capital in Vienna, which he pointed out to a safe and suitable place, and handed them over forever, which he captured in a document issued in Bratislava on September 11, 1626, which he signed with his own hand, we, guided by the efforts and piety of the aforementioned noble and excellent lord cardinal and thanks to the good will of our Society, because we have an obligation to answer and it is requested to follow him, we accept the mentioned gift both in our name and in the name of our followers sincerely and with obligatory gratitude. We established and founded the mentioned college according to the provisions of the Society, the constitutions and the custom of leading and managing in the city of Bratislava, we use and own fifty thousand guilders as its foundation and donation. We accept and recognize the noble and venerable Mr. Cardinal and Archbishop Peter as the founder of the mentioned college with all the rights that, based on our constitutions, belong and belong to the founders of colleges. We fervently ask God to bless him with happiness after the reception, for the inexhaustible treasure of the merits of his dearly beloved son for us, he himself filled it abundantly and decorated the above-mentioned noble and venerable Mr. Cardinal and Archbishop Peter with a crown of eternal glory. For confirmation, we had this document drawn up bearing the seal of our Company. In Rome, June 12, 1631.
  Mutius Vitellescus
   

You can find the current Articles of Incorporation in the section Basic information.

During the 60s of the 20th century, the school was divided into two, when the building on Grösslingová remained the primary school and the secondary school, resp. the gymnasium moved to Vazovová street, so that they were subsequently merged back into the gymnasium in the original building.

In Bratislava (Prešpork) Slovak, Hungarian and German were spoken simultaneously for centuries, to which we must add Latin among the educated. In some periods, among other things the names of the residents were transcribed into the “leading language”, which now complicates the situation when using historical sources, since it is more difficult to determine the original form of the names.

SHOCK

Shock was resurrected several times as a popular non-periodical under the bench during the nineties and zero years.

PULZÁČIK

A copy of Pulzáčik found in an archive, probably from the 1980s.

Náš smer (Our direction)

A humorous magazine in the forties.

My (We)

It was published in an edition of 250 pieces in the thirties.

Kde sme (Where are we)

The thirties.

Megafón (Megaphone)

So-called wall newspapers in the thirties.